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   <front>
      <journal-meta>
         <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">uniciencia</journal-id>
         <journal-title-group>
            <journal-title>Uniciencia</journal-title>
            <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Uniciencia</abbrev-journal-title>
         </journal-title-group>
         <issn pub-type="ppub">2215-3470</issn>
         <issn pub-type="epub">1011-0275</issn>
         <publisher>
            <publisher-name>Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica</publisher-name>
         </publisher>
      </journal-meta>
      <article-meta>
         <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.15359/ru.38-1.4</article-id>
         <article-categories>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
               <subject>Artículo</subject>
            </subj-group>
         </article-categories>
         <title-group>
            <article-title>Análisis de la Escala de Clima Escolar en Ambientes Universitarios (ECEAU)</article-title>
            <trans-title-group xml:lang="pt">
               <trans-title>
                  <italic>Análise da Escala de Clima Escolar em Ambientes Universitários (ECEAU)</italic>
               </trans-title>
            </trans-title-group>
         </title-group>
         <contrib-group>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6050-5850</contrib-id>
               <name>
                  <surname>Zamora-Araya</surname>
                  <given-names>José Andrey</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
                  <sup>1</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8666-6433</contrib-id>
               <name>
                  <surname>Duarte-Abarca</surname>
                  <given-names>Karolayn</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
                  <sup>2</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2199-7295</contrib-id>
               <name>
                  <surname>Quesada-Varela</surname>
                  <given-names>Darcy</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
                  <sup>3</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1783-6763</contrib-id>
               <name>
                  <surname>Prado-Abarca</surname>
                  <given-names>Mónica</given-names>
               </name>
               <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
                  <sup>4</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
         </contrib-group>
         <aff id="aff1">
            <label>1</label>
            <institution content-type="original"> Escuela de Matemática, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. jzamo@una.ac.cr, http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6050-5850 Autor para correspondencia</institution>
            <institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escuela de Matemática</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <addr-line>
               <city>Heredia</city>
            </addr-line>
            <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
            <email>jzamo@una.ac.cr</email>
         </aff>
         <aff id="aff2">
            <label>2</label>
            <institution content-type="original"> Escuela de Matemática, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. karolayn.duarte.abarca@est.una.ac.cr,  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8666-6433</institution>
            <institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escuela de Matemática</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <addr-line>
               <city>Heredia</city>
            </addr-line>
            <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
            <email>karolayn.duarte.abarca@est.una.ac.cr</email>
         </aff>
         <aff id="aff3">
            <label>3</label>
            <institution content-type="original"> Escuela de Matemática, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. darcy.quesada.varela@est.una.ac.cr,  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2199-7295</institution>
            <institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escuela de Matemática</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <addr-line>
               <city>Heredia</city>
            </addr-line>
            <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
            <email>darcy.quesada.varela@est.una.ac.cr</email>
         </aff>
         <aff id="aff4">
            <label>4</label>
            <institution content-type="original"> Escuela de Matemática, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. monica.prado.abarca@est.una.ac.cr,  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1783-6763</institution>
            <institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escuela de Matemática</institution>
            <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional</institution>
            <addr-line>
               <city>Heredia</city>
            </addr-line>
            <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
            <email>monica.prado.abarca@est.una.ac.cr</email>
         </aff>
         <pub-date pub-type="collection">
            <season>Jan-Dec</season>
            <year>2024</year>
         </pub-date>
         <issue>38</issue>
         <fpage>60</fpage>
         <lpage>80</lpage>
         <history>Recibido:<date date-type="received">
               <day>17</day>
               <month>06</month>
               <year>2022</year>
            </date>Aceptado:<date date-type="accepted">
               <day>08</day>
               <month>03</month>
               <year>2023</year>
            </date>Publicado:</history>
         <permissions>
            <license xml:lang="es" license-type="open-access"
                     xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">
               <license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
            </license>
         </permissions>
         <abstract>
            <title>Resumen</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <sec>
               <title>(Objetivo)</title>
               <p> El objetivo del documento es verificar la estructura factorial de la Escala de Clima Escolar en Ambientes Universitarios (ECEAU) mediante modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Metodología)</title>
               <p> Se realizó un estudio transversal no experimental con una muestra aleatoria de 381 estudiantes de la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, a los que se le aplicó la ECEAU. Se planteó un modelo SEM para verificar la estructura factorial de la escala y un análisis factorial exploratorio (AFE) que brindó la base para proponer un modelo SEM alternativo con una estructura distinta. La confiabilidad de las escalas se determinó mediante el omega de McDonald y los criterios de bondad de ajuste para los modelos SEM fueron el RMSEA, el CFI, el TLI y el GFI. El análisis se efectuó con el software R.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Resultados)</title>
               <p> La confiabilidad de las escalas en ambos modelos resultaron adecuadas (w &gt;0.70), aunque mejores en el modelo propuesto. El AFE sugirió una estructura diferente para la ECEAU, manteniendo algunas dimensiones de la estructura original y modificando y eliminando otras. Los indicadores de bondad de ajuste, en ambos modelos, fueron casi idénticos con RMSEA=0.02, CFI=0.99, el TLI=0.99 y GFI=0.98, lo que brinda evidencia a favor de las estructuras factoriales planteadas.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Conclusiones)</title>
               <p> Se verifica la estructura originalmente planteada en la ECEAU y las diferencias en los métodos de estimación y rotación generaron la propuesta de otra estructura factorial, igualmente válida, para medir el constructo clima escolar, en el contexto universitario estudiado y que puede ser aplicado a contextos similares.</p>
            </sec>
         </abstract>
         <trans-abstract xml:lang="pt">
            <title>Resumo </title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <sec>
               <title>(Objetivo)</title>
               <p> O objetivo do artigo é verificar a estrutura fatorial da Escala de Clima Escolar em Ambientes Universitários (ECEAU) usando modelagem de equações estruturais (SEM).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Metodologia)</title>
               <p> Foi realizado um estudo transversal não experimental com uma amostra aleatória de 381 alunos da Universidade Nacional da Costa Rica, aos quais foi aplicada a ECEAU. Uma modelagem SEM foi usada para verificar a estrutura fatorial da escala e uma análise fatorial exploratória (AFE) forneceu a base para a proposta de uma modelagem SEM alternativa com uma estrutura diferente. A confiabilidade das escalas foi determinada pelo ômega de McDonald e os critérios de adequação dos modelos SEM foram RMSEA, CFI, TLI e GFI. A análise foi realizada com o software R.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Resultados)</title>
               <p> A confiabilidade das escalas em ambos os modelos foi adequada (w &gt;0,70), embora melhor no modelo proposto. A AFE sugeriu uma estrutura diferente para a ECEAU, mantendo algumas dimensões da estrutura original e modificando e eliminando outras. Os indicadores de adequação em ambos os modelos foram quase idênticos, com RMSEA=0,02, CFI=0,99, TLI=0,99 e GFI=0,98, o que fornece evidências a favor das estruturas de fatores propostas.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Conclusões)</title>
               <p> Confirmou-se a estrutura originalmente proposta no ECEAU e as diferenças nos métodos de estimativa e rotação geraram a proposta de outra estrutura fatorial, igualmente válida, para medir o construto clima escolar no contexto universitário estudado e que pode ser aplicada a contextos semelhantes.</p>
            </sec>
         </trans-abstract>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="es">
            <title>Palabras clave:</title>
            <kwd>análisis factorial</kwd>
            <kwd>clima escolar</kwd>
            <kwd>confiabilidad</kwd>
            <kwd>educación superior</kwd>
            <kwd>matemática</kwd>
            <kwd>validez</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
            <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
            <kwd>análise fatorial</kwd>
            <kwd>clima escolar</kwd>
            <kwd>confiabilidade</kwd>
            <kwd>ensino superior</kwd>
            <kwd>matemática</kwd>
            <kwd>validade</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
         <counts>
            <fig-count count="8"/>
            <table-count count="10"/>
            <equation-count count="0"/>
            <ref-count count="41"/>
            <page-count count="21"/>
         </counts>
      </article-meta>
   </front>
   <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
         <title>Introducción</title>
         <bold> </bold>
         <p>El clima de aula, también conocido como clima escolar o clima educativo, influye en el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje, desde distintos componentes como: la infraestructura del aula e institución, el rol del docente, las metodologías y evaluaciones que se implementan, además, de las interacciones estudiante-estudiante y estudiante-docente, entre otras; estas variables se miden y analizan desde la percepción que posee el estudiante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ríos et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Walankar et al., 2019</xref>). Además, la percepción que tiene el estudiantado acerca del clima escolar ha sido asociada, de manera positiva, tanto con el rendimiento académico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barksdale, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba, 2015</xref>; National School Climate <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Council, 2007</xref>) como con procesos relacionados con la retención y permanencia institucional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Buckman, et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lee &amp; Burkam, 2003</xref>).</p>
         <p>Por consiguiente, los beneficios derivados de contar con un clima escolar positivo y su efecto en el rendimiento académico estudiantil permiten reducir las brechas de logro educativo, propiciadas por factores de índole económico y social; así como sus efectos negativos en casos en que el ambiente de aula sea desfavorable, lo que repercute, sobre todo, en las poblaciones más vulnerables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Berkowitz, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">O’Malley, et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
         <p>Asimismo, los factores que inciden en el rendimiento académico se encuentran relacionados con aspectos de tipo afectivo y emocionales, por lo que para potenciar un clima escolar positivo deben existir intervenciones o políticas educativas que permitan propiciar mejores ambientes de aprendizaje (National School Climate <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Council, 2007</xref>). Así, se plantean campos de investigación relacionados con la comprensión de los ambientes que se generan a partir de las conductas y actitudes de los actores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Djigic &amp; Stojiljkovic, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kohl, et al., 2013</xref>).</p>
         <p>En lo que respecta a los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Pereira (2010</xref>) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kohl et al. (2013</xref>) señalan que las características de personalidad del docente, los diferentes métodos que utiliza para la realización de la clase, el tipo de interacción que hay entre los estudiantes y las condiciones estructurales que presenta la institución, son algunos de los factores que influyen directamente en el clima escolar dentro de las aulas. No obstante, el clima escolar es un concepto multidimensional y que no tiene una definición única, características que hacen compleja su medición (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Shukla et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Wang &amp; Degol, 2016</xref>).</p>
         <p>Aunado a esto, son pocos los instrumentos construidos para medir el clima escolar en ambientes universitarios, entre ellos la Escala de Clima Escolar en Ambientes Universitarios (ECEUA) elaborada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), que recoge una serie de factores asociados al constructo, determinadas mediante un estudio mixto, con juicio de expertos y un análisis de componentes principales (ACP) con rotación ortogonal VARIMAX. No obstante, las dimensiones derivadas en este tipo de instrumentos suelen estar correlacionadas y, desde el punto de vista estadístico, se busca la determinación de factores más que la reducción de la dimensionalidad.</p>
         <p>Es por ello que el objetivo de este estudio consiste en comprobar la estructura factorial de la ECEUA, primeramente mediante un análisis factorial exploratorio (AFE) con una rotación oblicua más apropiada para factores correlacionados y un método de estimación más robusto que el empleado para construir la ECEUA, dado que la autora inicial del instrumento utilizó un análisis de componentes principales (ACP) en lugar de un AFE, y, de esta manera, valorar si cambia su estructura; en cuyo caso se plantea una propuesta que se analiza junto con la estructura original, por medio de un análisis de ecuaciones estructurales, SEM por sus siglas en inglés (Structural Equation Modeling) y así contar con evidencia empírica de la validez de la escala para medir el constructo clima educativo.</p>
         <sec>
            <title>Medición del clima escolar</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>En el ámbito educativo, ha sido de gran interés el desarrollo del concepto de clima de aula, sin embargo, son relativamente pocos los instrumentos diseñados para medir este constructo, por lo que también se ha estudiado a partir de entrevistas, grupos focales, observaciones o reportes de aula (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Lenz et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
            <p>Entre las escalas que se han utilizado para la medición del clima escolar, en particular en los niveles primarios y secundarios del sistema educativo, están la escala Delaware School Climate SurveyStudent (DSCS-S), que mide las percepciones de las relaciones entre los miembros de la comunidad escolar, por ejemplo: las relaciones entre docentes y estudiantes, relaciones entre docentes y tutores, relaciones entre estudiantes, seguridad escolar, equidad y claridad de las reglas y expectativas de comportamiento y tiene varias versiones, según la población meta, sean estos docentes, padres o estudiantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bear et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
            <p>Otro instrumento utilizado en entornos educativos es el Inventory of School Climate-Stundt (ISC-S), que fue diseñado para evaluar las dimensiones del ambiente escolar las cuales están consistentemente relacionadas con el ajuste de los estudiantes a las instituciones, como por ejemplo: apoyo del maestro, consistencia y claridad de las reglas y expectativas, compromiso del estudiante y orientación al logro, interacciones entre pares, dureza disciplinaria, aportes de los estudiantes en la toma de decisiones, innovación educativa: relevancia, apoyo al pluralismo cultural y problemas de seguridad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Brand et al., 2003</xref>). De manera análoga, el School Climate Measure (SCM), a partir de un robusto análisis psicométrico utiliza ocho dimensiones para el estudio del clima escolar similares a las de ISC-S a saber: (1) relaciones positivas entre estudiante-docente, (2) conexión escolar, (3) apoyo académico, (4) orden y disciplina, (5) ambiente físico, (6) ambiente social, (7) percepción de exclusión/privilegios y (8) satisfacción académica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Zullig et al., 2010</xref>).</p>
            <p>Otras escalas se han creado para dar respuesta a contextos específicos, como es el caso del Japan School Climate Inventory (JaSC) que está orientado al particular contexto educativo japonés y que fue creado tomando como base las estructuras de los instrumentos aplicados en occidente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al., 2020</xref>). En el contexto de habla hispana, una de las escalas elaboradas para medir el constructo es la Escala del Clima Social Escolar (ECLIS), instrumento chileno que evalúa el clima escolar por medio de cinco subescalas: (1) “Mis Profesores”, (2) “Mis compañeros”, (3) “Los lugares” (percepción de infraestructura), (4) “Mi colegio” (evaluación global de la institución) y (5) “Bullying” (hostigamiento) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aron et al., 2012</xref>).</p>
            <p>Concretamente en educación superior, como se ha mencionado, los instrumentos son escasos, ya que la mayoría de los estudios se han concentrado en los niveles de primaria y secundaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Buckman et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al., 2020</xref>) o bien se enfocan en programas académicos específicos, muchos de ellos en el área de las ciencias de la salud <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">(Al-Natour, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kaur et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Krupat et al., 2017</xref>). Uno de los pocos instrumentos dirigidos a una población universitaria general, en idioma español, es la ECEUA elaborada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), la cual utiliza una base teórica para su construcción y fue validada en un grupo de 693 estudiantes universitarios de la Universidad Tecnológica de León, ubicada en la ciudad de León Guanajuato, México. La ECEUA ha sido utilizada en investigaciones que toman al clima educativo como un constructo que puede ayudar a explicar el rendimiento académico estudiantil en el nivel universitario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">García et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Loza et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
            <p>Recientemente <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">García et al. (2022</xref>), construyeron una escala de clima escolar para ambientes de educación superior aplicada a 329 estudiantes mexicanos, desde primer ingreso hasta el nivel de licenciatura de universidades públicas y privadas, que utiliza como base otras escalas, entre ellas la de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), llamada escala de clima escolar de estudiantes universitarios (ECE-U). La ECE-U está constituida por seis subescalas: (1) Soporte del profesor, (2) Pertenencia universitaria, (3) Relación con compañeros, (4) Agresividad escolar, (5) Reglamentación universitaria, (6) Recursos institucionales. En términos generales, los instrumentos utilizados para medir el clima escolar consideran aspectos de tipo social, individual, académico y de interacción para establecer sus dimensiones.</p>
            <p>Es por ello, que con el fin de contar con un instrumento que permita una medición sobre el clima escolar en el centro universitario y con base en las similitudes de los sistemas universitarios mexicano y costarricense, se decidió utilizar la ECEUA en una población de estudiantes que matricularon cursos de matemática en la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), donde históricamente el rendimiento académico ha sido bajo y cuyo porcentaje de deserción es alto, dado que, de la población estudiantil que ingresa anualmente a esta casa de estudios tan solo cerca del 50 % cumple con los requisitos para graduarse, causando con ello, una disminución con respecto a la eficiencia terminal en la educación superior y en la cantidad de profesionales que la universidad incorpora al mundo laboral <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">(Rodríguez y Zamora, 2021</xref>).</p>
            <p>Es así como con la aplicación de la ECEUA al contexto universitario pretende verificar la estructura factorial de la escala mediante su implementación en un contexto similar, solo que enfocado en estudiantes que reciben cursos del área de matemática y, de esta manera, valorar su posible aplicación en otros ambientes universitarios y así contribuir con la calidad del proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <title>Marco teórico</title>
         <bold> </bold>
         <p>Esta sección se divide en dos apartados. La primera es una breve reseña acerca de la conceptualización del clima escolar y su importancia en el ámbito académico. La segunda explica la formulación de la ECEAU, su proceso de construcción y su estructura factorial.</p>
         <sec>
            <title>Clima escolar como constructo teórico</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Este trabajo parte del concepto de clima escolar brindado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al. (2020</xref>), quienes lo señalan como un constructo multidimensional, que muestra la calidad y las características que posee una institución educativa. Adicionalmente, se dice que es una experiencia compartida por las diferentes personas que forman parte de la institución, y que puede afectar a sus pensamientos, sentimientos y comportamiento. Dada su naturaleza multifactorial el concepto de clima escolar tiene múltiples definiciones; no obstante, se considerará la propuesta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) “Clima escolar es el conjunto de características estructurales, funcionales e interaccionales que enmarcan el desarrollo de las actividades habituales de los miembros de la institución, reflejado en la percepción de la satisfacción que les genera” (p. 65).</p>
            <p>Al respecto, el clima escolar es considerado como un aspecto enmarcado dentro de la cultura imperante en las instituciones educativas y que puede ser observado a través de las interacciones, resultados y comportamientos que ocurren día a día dentro del centro educativo; es decir, la cultura de la institución crea el clima escolar, que es percibido de manera grupal y que se relaciona directamente con la forma en que las personas se sienten con respecto a su estancia en dicha institución (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cohen et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Roby, 2011</xref>).</p>
            <p>Además, de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Smith et al. (2014</xref>) el clima escolar queda determinado por las creencias percibidas que tienen las personas involucradas con respecto a su centro educativo, influenciadas por las normas, metas, valores, interacción con los miembros de la comunidad educativa, metodologías de enseñanza y estructuras organizativas de la institución. Por ello, un ambiente escolar positivo puede ayudar a mejorar la calidad de la educación ya que, al medirlo, permite detectar problemas de convivencia que son sujetos de la acción institucional que, eventualmente, podrían propiciar mejoras en los entornos escolares para ayudar a que la convivencia sea agradable y beneficiosa para todos sus integrantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
            <p>Por otra parte, como se ha mencionado existe una falta de consenso a cerca de la definición del concepto y de los parámetros para su medición, lo que conlleva a que el término clima escolar se utilice para designar diferentes aspectos asociados con los ambientes escolares, lo que enfatiza su carácter multidimensional y diferentes autores se enfocan en diversos aspectos del constructo, dependiendo de sus intereses de investigación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kaur et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Shukla et al., 2019</xref>). Por ejemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Wang y Degol (2016</xref>), a partir de una revisión teórica de 327 documentos plantean que el clima escolar engloba cuatro dimensiones principales: (1) seguridad: subcategorizada en emocional/social, física, disciplina y orden; (2) comunidad: subdividida en compañerismo, calidad de relaciones, conectividad y respeto a la diversidad; (3) académica: cuyas subdimensiones son liderazgo, desarrollo profesional, enseñanza y aprendizaje y (4) ambiente institucional: separado en ambiente, estructura organizacional y disponibilidad de recursos; lo que corrobora la multidimensionalidad del constructo.</p>
            <p>En la misma línea, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba, Klinger y Hussain (2015</xref>), también analizaron la multidimensionalidad del clima escolar y propusieron tres grandes áreas: (1) social, (2) académica y (3) física. Como puede apreciarse, a menudo el concepto de clima escolar se adapta al contexto y las necesidades del equipo de investigación, lo que evidencia que no existe un único significado. En lo que sí parece haber acuerdo, es en su efecto sobre el proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje, en el desarrollo del estudiante y en la percepción u opinión positiva que tienen los involucrados acerca del tema. Todos estos indicadores pueden brindar una aproximación al clima de aula (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez, 2014</xref>).</p>
            <p>Otra forma de categorizar el clima de aula es identificándolo como positivo o negativo para el estudiante. Según este enfoque, el clima de aula positivo genera un ambiente donde el estudiante se siente seguro, acompañado, estimado, se presenta iniciativa del profesor por mantener una comunicación asertiva con el estudiantado en busca de promover, positivamente, su desarrollo personal; por otro lado, el clima de aula negativo se distingue cuando se presentan ciertas características en los estudiantes como el estrés, la depresión, la falta de interés, entre otros; por ejemplo, sucede cuando existe una mala comunicación entre docente y estudiante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Aron y Milicic, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Loza et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
            <p>En relación con lo anterior <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ríos et al. (2010</xref>) explican que la percepción sobre las situaciones, a lo interno del aula, se basa en un clima positivo o negativo, donde el primero es aquel en que la comunicación entre docente y estudiante está cimentada en el respeto, en tanto la acción del docente anima a la participación de sus estudiantes y responde con agrado las dudas que se generan; en oposición, el segundo será aquel que cause los efectos contrarios a un clima positivo.</p>
            <p>Al respecto, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Galván (2015</xref>) señalan que al ser más distante la relación docente-estudiante en contextos de educación terciaria, en comparación con la educación primaria y secundaria, los estudiantes universitarios aprecian, de manera positiva, cuando el docente se muestra interesado en tener una relación cercana; es decir, que el profesor posee la habilidad de escucha e interés en los temas que son de importancia para ellos. Sucede lo mismo cuando el profesor brinda al estudiante materiales de apoyo para estudiar o detalla con claridad las instrucciones en las evaluaciones, esto da como resultado una relación positiva entre docente-estudiante.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Sustento teórico de la Escala de Clima Escolar en Ambientes Universitarios</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Para la construcción de la ECEAU, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) realizó un estudio de tipo mixto, en cuya primera etapa elabora 351 ítems que mediante jueceo de expertos se redujeron a 76 reactivos, los cuales se aplicaron a una muestra de 170 estudiantes a manera de piloto. En esta etapa se realizó un análisis de componentes principales (ACP) con rotación VARIMAX y estimación máximo verosímil, la cual redujo la escala a 41 ítems. En una etapa posterior, aplica esta última versión a una muestra final de 693 estudiantes para su validación final. De esta forma, la ECEAU busca aproximar el clima de aula y producto de este proceso de construcción se generaron tres dimensiones principales: institucional, interacciones educativas y satisfacción, las cuales se definen de la siguiente manera:</p>
            <p>
               <list list-type="order">
                  <list-item>
                     <p>Dimensión institucional: considera aspectos de organización y funcionales de la escuela o institución educativa, como, por ejemplo, la imagen de la institución, marcos normativos, entre otros.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>Dimensión interacciones educativas: hace referencia a prácticas, procedimientos, relaciones, actitudes y comportamientos entre las personas de la institución y su relación con el entorno.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>Dimensión satisfacción: aquí se evalúan las opiniones y percepciones de las personas que pertenecen a la institución educativa, según el nivel de satisfacción del clima de aula que han experimentado.</p>
                  </list-item>
               </list>
            </p>
            <p>A partir de estas dimensiones <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) establece una clasificación de factores e indicadores que pretenden evaluar el clima de aula, los cuales corresponden a:</p>
            <p>Factor 1 es la estructura organizacional, este aspecto enmarca lo que los estudiantes perciben sobre los señalamientos de organización y normas que se diseñan en la institución educativa que se relacionan con el clima de aula.</p>
            <p>Factor 2 correspondiente a la funcionalidad, que refleja lo que los estudiantes piensan sobre los medios de comunicación que les facilitan la guía en su proceso formativo.</p>
            <p>Factor 3 es la interacción maestro-alumno, este elemento se refiere a cómo se relacionan el docente y el estudiante, desde aspectos como el diálogo, la demostración de interés del maestro al estudiante en el proceso de aprendizaje, la resolución de conflictos o qué tanta congruencia hay entre lo que dice el docente y cómo actúa.</p>
            <p>Factor 4 son las prácticas docentes donde la metodología de enseñanza-aprendizaje, se asocia a la opinión de los estudiantes respecto a las prácticas metodológicas que implementa el docente, según considere, que buscan cumplir con los objetivos académicos planteados en el proceso de aprendizaje. Indicador 1 son las prácticas de evaluación, esto analiza, desde la perspectiva de los estudiantes, cómo son los criterios de evaluación de una determinada asignatura y si el profesor brinda retroalimentación para apoyar su formación.</p>
            <p>Factor 5 corresponde a la interacción entre pares, se refiere las relaciones entre los estudiantes en determinadas situaciones dentro de los grupos de trabajo, por ejemplo, en la resolución de conflictos, los espacios en donde los estudiantes pueden expresar ideas, entre otros. El indicador 2 son las interacciones con el contexto externo, este elemento evalúa el apoyo que proporciona la Universidad a los estudiantes para ubicarse en la comunidad y en el sector empresarial.</p>
            <p>Factor 6 es la satisfacción, se toma como criterio para conocer la apreciación de los estudiantes sobre la satisfacción que presentan respecto a su estancia en la universidad. Como puede apreciarse, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) desarrolla las dimensiones, factores e indicadores y, en aras de una mejor comprensión de la propuesta teórica, el equipo investigador sintetiza la organización de las dimensiones respecto a los factores e indicadores de la escala ECEAU por medio de una representación gráfica en donde se evidencien las interrelaciones de estos conceptos, se considera, por tanto, al clima educativo como el constructo principal, las dimensiones  como constructos de segundo nivel y los factores e indicadores como constructos de tercer y cuarto nivel, de acuerdo con el análisis teórico y procedimiento de construcción de la escala. La <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Gráfica 1</xref> muestra</p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f1">
                  <label>Gráfica 1</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Clasificación de las dimensiones, factores e indicadores utilizados en la ECEAU.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image001.jpg"/>
                  <attrib>Fuente: Elaboración propia</attrib>
               </fig>
            </p>
            <p>la disposición de cada factor o indicador, según la dimensión en que fue clasificado, de manera que representa la estructura factorial a ser confirmada por medio de un modelo SEM.</p>
            <p>La escala formulada bajo estos factores e indicadores pretende evaluar el clima escolar universitario, el cual proporciona una aproximación sobre cómo es el clima en que se desarrolla el proceso de aprendizaje y cómo este sirve de apoyo para que el docente planifique y estructure sus futuras acciones en procura de mediar la formación de sus estudiantes, por lo que la conceptualización de clima escolar hecha por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) es la que se adopta en este trabajo. Dado que la ECEAU es uno de los pocos instrumentos desarrollados para medir el clima escolar en contextos universitarios y su construcción, aplicación inicial y procesos de validación se realizaron en un contexto similar al de la Universidad Nacional, se decide usar esta escala para analizar la aproximación del clima de aula en el contexto de la educación superior costarricense.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
         <title>Metodología</title>
         <bold> </bold>
         <p>La metodología, en esta investigación, es sustentada en un diseño cuantitativo de tipo no experimental correlacional de corte transversal. La población de estudio corresponde al estudiantado que matriculó los cursos de servicio impartidos por la Escuela de Matemáticas de la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica durante el II Ciclo del 2019; es decir, cursos que ofrece la Escuela de Matemática a carreras del área de ingenierías, ciencias sociales y, en general, carreras que requieren asignaturas como Cálculo, Matemática General, Álgebra Lineal, Cálculo Superior, Probabilidad y Estadística, entre otras. En total estaban disponibles 66 grupos de estas asignaturas, para un total de 2310 estudiantes.</p>
         <p>La muestra se seleccionó mediante un muestreo aleatorio sistemático, esto mediante un listado en el cual se enumeran la totalidad de los cursos de servicio impartidos. Se trabajó con una muestra de 20 grupos, de ellos 14 pertenecientes a los primeros niveles de las carreras, para un total de muestra efectiva de 381 estudiantes encuestados, 247 hombres y 134 mujeres, con edades en un rango de 17 a 49 años.</p>
         <p>Se consultó al coordinador de los cursos de servicio de matemática, a los docentes seleccionados en la muestra y a los estudiantes matriculados en los cursos, sobre la aplicación del instrumento; se adjuntó un consentimiento informado para aquellas personas que accedieron a colaborar con el equipo investigativo, donde se estipula salvaguardar y mantener el anonimato de la información recolectada. Para la recolección de datos se usó la escala elaborada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), la cual consta de 41 preguntas con una escala de 1 a 4; donde 1 significa totalmente en desacuerdo, 2 en desacuerdo, 3 de acuerdo, y 4 totalmente de acuerdo.</p>
         <p>El instrumento se adapta para aplicarlo al contexto de la universidad seleccionada, estos instrumentos, el código para replicar los resultados y la base de datos se pueden encontrar en el siguiente enlace: https://github.com/andreyzamora/Clima-Educativo.</p>
         <p>Es así como en una primera instancia se aplicó un AFE a la ECEAU, con el fin de comprobar si concuerda con la estructura factorial de la escala, pues se aplica un método de estimación y rotación diferentes al proceso de construcción de la ECEAU. De este análisis, surge una propuesta que modifica la estructura original de la escala. Tanto a la estructura original como a la estructura propuesta en este estudio se les aplica un modelo SEM, con el fin de compararlos, para lo cual se utiliza como medidas de bondad de ajuste el RMSEA, el CFI, el TLI y GFI.</p>
         <p>De acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) los ítems de la escala ECEAU fueron construidos mediante un riguroso proceso que involucró jueceo de personas expertas y su estructura final fue una combinación de este juicio y un ACP como medio para realizar el análisis exploratorio, con rotación VARIMAX y método de estimación de máxima verosimilitud. No obstante, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura (2014</xref>) mencionan que no es apropiado utilizar un ACP para verificar la estructura factorial de un instrumento cuyo objetivo es determinar su estructura factorial y tampoco recomienda usar rotaciones ortogonales, como VARIMAX cuando se trabaja con constructos en el campo de las ciencias sociales, que, por lo general, están correlacionados.</p>
         <p>En contraste, se recomienda utilizar análisis factorial y la estimación MinRes o de mínimos cuadrados no ponderados en lugar de la de máxima verosimilitud ya que tiende a tener mejores resultados en este tipo de instrumentos. Por esta razón, se efectuará un AFE a la escala ECEAU, pero con la rotación oblicua oblimin debido a que, desde la teoría subyacente, las dimensiones del constructo clima educativo se relacionan entre sí. Además, se utiliza la estimación MinRes para determinar qué tanto varía la estructura factorial propuesta originalmente, por ser uno de los más recomendados, dado que ha demostrado ser efectivo al minimizar la suma de los cuadrados de las diferencias entre las matrices de correlaciones observadas y reproducidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
         <p>Dado que el objetivo del estudio es identificar el número y composición de los factores comunes asociados con un rasgo latente y con ello, explicar la varianza común a partir de los ítems que componen la ECEAU, lo apropiado es realizar un AFE y no un ACP, pues este último se utiliza para identificar el número y composición de los componentes necesarios para resumir las puntuaciones observadas en un conjunto grande de variables observadas; a saber, es una técnica de reducción de dimensionalidad. El objetivo de aplicar el AFE es evaluar la estructura factorial del instrumento y contrastar esta estructura con la ECEAU por medio de modelos SEM (ver <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Gráficas 1</xref> y <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">2</xref>). Para el análisis de los resultados se utilizó el software estadístico R versión 4.0.2, en particular las librerías <italic>lavaan y psych.</italic>
         </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
         <title>Análisis y resultados</title>
         <bold> </bold>
         <p>Una de las medidas de adecuación a la muestra para un análisis factorial es el estadístico KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) junto con el test de esfericidad de Barttlet que arrojan valores de 0.93 (p &lt; 0.001) y chi cuadrado de 1950.02, df= 820 (p&lt; 0.001), por lo que se concluye que es adecuado realizar un AFE para estos datos.</p>
         <p>Dado que los ítems son de naturaleza ordinal se usará la matriz de correlaciones policórica y, de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al. (2014</xref>), esto, por lo general, requiere de un tamaño de muestra mayor que al usar la matriz producto-momento de Pearson, y valores altos de las comunalidades de los ítems; no obstante, se cuenta con un tamaño de muestra suficiente 381 casos y el valor de las comunalidades es moderadamente altas con la mayoría de los puntajes entre 0.33 y 0.70. El método de estimación usado es el de residuales mínimos (MinRes) equivalente al de mínimos cuadrados no ponderados que, a diferencia de los basados en máxima verosimilitud, son más eficientes computacionalmente y más apropiados cuando se trabajan con matrices de correlaciones policóricas <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">(Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Pere-Joan y Anguiano-Carrasco, 2010</xref>).</p>
         <p>En cuanto a la determinación del número de factores se consideraron varios criterios entre ellos: el análisis paralelo obtenido por medio de la función fa.parallel del paquete psych de R, que sugiere seis factores, el cálculo del MAP (Minimum Average Partial Test), el cual propone siete factores para minimizar la correlación entre los residuales y la teoría subyacente al instrumento dada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) que apunta a la presencia de seis factores. Con todo esto, se toma la decisión de trabajar seis factores, debido a la interpretabilidad y consistencia de los indicadores anteriores.</p>
         <p>La <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabla 1</xref> muestra los resultados del AFE para la ECEAU. El nombre de los ítems refleja la clasificación de dimensiones hecha por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) que se muestra en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>. El AFE sugiere la presencia de seis factores, sin embargo, no hay una coincidencia perfecta con los propuestos por Juárez (2014). Lo anterior se debe a que se utiliza un método de rotación y de estimación de factores diferentes.</p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1">
               <label>Tabla 1</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Resultados del AFE para la ECEAU aplicado a estudiantes matriculados en cursos de Matemática Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II ciclo 2019. N =381</title>
               </caption>
               <table>
                  <colgroup>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                     <tr>
                        <th align="center">Ítem</th>
                        <th align="center">Comunicación Docente-estudiante</th>
                        <th align="center">Interacción entre pares</th>
                        <th align="center">Mediación pedagógica </th>
                        <th align="center">Estructura organizacional</th>
                        <th align="center">Comunicación institucional</th>
                        <th align="center">Contexto exterior</th>
                     </tr>
 
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Organizacional 1</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.14</td>
                        <td align="center">0.63</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Organizacional 2</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.43</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Organizacional 3</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.19</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.30</td>
                        <td align="center">0.35</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Organizacional 4</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.18</td>
                        <td align="center">0.12</td>
                        <td align="center">0.24</td>
                        <td align="center">0.42</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.12</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Organizacional 5</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.31</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.50</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Funcional 6</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.65</td>
                        <td align="center">0.11</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Funcional 7</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.69</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Funcional 8</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.14</td>
                        <td align="center">0.60</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Funcional 9</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.49</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Funcional 10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.12</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.62</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">1IME 11</td>
                        <td align="center">0.13</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.33</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 12</td>
                        <td align="center">0.23</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.55</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 13</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.77</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 14</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.79</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 15</td>
                        <td align="center">0.14</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.68</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 16</td>
                        <td align="center">0.33</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.38</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 17</td>
                        <td align="center">0.74</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.13</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 18</td>
                        <td align="center">0.44</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.39</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IME 19</td>
                        <td align="center">0.62</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.12</td>
                        <td align="center">0.19</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Metodología 20</td>
                        <td align="center">0.67</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Metodología 21</td>
                        <td align="center">0.70</td>
                        <td align="center">0.15</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.12</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Metodología 22</td>
                        <td align="center">0.65</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Metodología 23</td>
                        <td align="center">0.69</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Metodología 24</td>
                        <td align="center">0.69</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Evaluación 25</td>
                        <td align="center">0.52</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.22</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Evaluación 26</td>
                        <td align="center">0.44</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.32</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Evaluación 27</td>
                        <td align="center">0.30</td>
                        <td align="center">0.15</td>
                        <td align="center">0.33</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.11</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">2IP 28</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.78</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IP 29</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.78</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IP 30</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.74</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IP 31</td>
                        <td align="center">0.12</td>
                        <td align="center">0.52</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.20</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IP 32</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.74</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">IP 33</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.64</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        <td align="center">0.11</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">3CE 34</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.17</td>
                        <td align="center">0.55</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">CE 35</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.72</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">CE 36</td>
                        <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        <td align="center">0.79</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción 37</td>
                        <td align="center">0.06</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.63</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.25</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción 38</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.11</td>
                        <td align="center">0.59</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">0.18</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción 39</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.66</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        <td align="center">0.21</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción 40</td>
                        <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.48</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción 41</td>
                        <td align="center">0.11</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        <td align="center">0.58</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                     </tr>
                  </tbody>
               </table>
               <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN1">
                     <p>
                        <sup>1</sup> IME: Interacción maestro estudiante. <sup>2</sup> IP Interacción entre pares. <sup>3</sup> CE Contexto exterior</p>
                  </fn>
                  <fn id="TFN2">
                     <p>Nota: Fuente elaboración propia.</p>
                  </fn>
               </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <p>Se tomó la decisión, en cuanto al criterio de asignación de los ítems a los factores, de mantener aquellos cuyas saturaciones sobrepasen 0.30. Además, los indicadores de bondad de ajuste, como la raíz cuadrática media de los residuales el RMSR = 0.03 es cercano a cero; el índice de raíz cuadrática media del error de aproximación RMSEA =0.025 y el índice de confiabilidad de Tucker Lewis TLI = 0.993 muestran un buen ajuste del modelo a los datos. La <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabla 2</xref> muestra la proporción de varianza, explicada, de cada uno de los seis factores considerados en el análisis, dando como resultado un aporte similar de cada uno de ellos a la variancia común.</p>
         <p>Además, en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Gráfica 2</xref> se puede observar la correlación de cada uno de los seis  factores y los ítems que componen cada  factor; es decir, es la representación del modelo SEM propuesto a partir del AFE. También, dichas correlaciones oscilan entre 0.46 y 0.94, lo que demuestra que los factores están asociados como lo establece la teoría subyacente y, por ende, lo apropiado es ejecutar una rotación oblicua. Asimismo, los estadísticos de bondad de ajuste para el modelo propuesto, usando una rotación no ortogonal, por medio de la estimación Min-Res, resultaron satisfactorios (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabla 3</xref>).</p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2">
               <label>Tabla 2</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Indicadores relativos a la varianza de los factores de la ECEAU</title>
               </caption>
               <table>
                  <colgroup>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                     <tr>
                        <th align="center">Indicador</th>
                        <th align="center">Comunicación docente estudiante</th>
                        <th align="center">Interacción entre pares</th>
                        <th align="center">Mediación Pedagogica</th>
                        <th align="center">Estructura Organizacional</th>
                        <th align="center">Comunicación Organizacional</th>
                        <th align="center">Contexto exterior</th>
                     </tr>
 
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Autovalores</td>
                        <td align="center">5.26</td>
                        <td align="center">3.53</td>
                        <td align="center">4.01</td>
                        <td align="center">3.31</td>
                        <td align="center">2.72</td>
                        <td align="center">2.13</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Proporción de varianza</td>
                        <td align="center">0.13</td>
                        <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        <td align="center">0.05</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Proporción acumulada de varianza</td>
                        <td align="center">0.13</td>
                        <td align="center">0.21</td>
                        <td align="center">0.31</td>
                        <td align="center">0.39</td>
                        <td align="center">0.46</td>
                        <td align="center">0.51</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Proporción de varianza explicada por cada factor</td>
                        <td align="center">0.25</td>
                        <td align="center">0.17</td>
                        <td align="center">0.19</td>
                        <td align="center">0.16</td>
                        <td align="center">0.13</td>
                        <td align="center">0.10</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Proporción acumulada de varianza explicada por cada factor</td>
                        <td align="center">0.25</td>
                        <td align="center">0.42</td>
                        <td align="center">0.61</td>
                        <td align="center">0.77</td>
                        <td align="center">0.90</td>
                        <td align="center">1.00</td>
                     </tr>
                  </tbody>
               </table>
               <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN3">
                     <p>Nota: Fuente elaboración propia.</p>
                  </fn>
               </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3">
               <label>Tabla 3</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Indicadores de bondad de ajuste para los modelos SEM propuesto y original de la ECEAU</title>
               </caption>
               <table>
                  <colgroup>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                     <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                     <tr>
                        <th align="center">Modelo</th>
                        <th align="center">RMSEA</th>
                        <th align="center">CFI</th>
                        <th align="center">TLI</th>
                        <th align="center">GFI</th>
                     </tr>
 
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">Original</td>
                        <td align="center">0.024</td>
                        <td align="center">0. 994</td>
                        <td align="center">0.994</td>
                        <td align="center">0,979</td>
                     </tr>
 
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">Propuesto</td>
                        <td align="center">0.025</td>
                        <td align="center">0.993</td>
                        <td align="center">0.993</td>
                        <td align="center">0.979</td>
                     </tr>
                  </tbody>
               </table>
               <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN4">
                     <p>Nota: Fuente elaboración propia.</p>
                  </fn>
               </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <p>
            <fig id="f2">
               <label>Gráfica 2</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Análisis factorial confirmatorio constructos propuestos de la ECEAU.</title>
               </caption>
               <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image002.jpg"/>
               <attrib>Fuente: Elaboración propia.</attrib>
            </fig>
         </p>
         <p>
            <fig id="f3">
               <label>Gráfica 3</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Análisis factorial confirmatorio para los constructos originalmente planteado para la ECEAU.</title>
               </caption>
               <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image003.jpg"/>
               <attrib>Fuente: Elaboración propia.</attrib>
            </fig>
         </p>
         <p>Por otra parte, también se realizó un modelo SEM a la estructura originalmente planteada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) para la ECEAU, de igual forma, con una rotación no ortogonal y el mismo método de estimación que el modelo propuesto, obteniendo también buenos indicadores de bondad de ajuste (ver <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Gráfica 3</xref>) lo que brinda evidencia sobre la estructura factorial establecida de manera inicial.</p>
         <p>Los estadísticos de bondad de ajuste de ambos modelos son casi los mismos, aunque su estructura factorial es ligeramente diferente, lo que se evidencia en los ítems que conforman las respectivas escalas que operacionalizan los constructos. Sin embargo, la estructura factorial para la ECEAU del modelo SEM propuesto toma en cuenta la base teórica con la que se construyó la escala, pero reasignando algunos ítems entre las escalas y manteniendo otros.</p>
         <p>Como medida de confiabilidad para las escalas se utilizó el Omega de McDonald, cuyo uso se recomienda con datos ordinales usados en el modelamiento de ecuaciones estructurales Cronbach (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Green &amp; Yang, 2009</xref>). Aunque, para efectos de comparación, también se especifica la medida de alfa de Cronbach como se observa en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabla 4</xref>.</p>
         <p>Como se observa en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabla 4</xref>, las confiabilidades de las escalas de ambos modelos son aceptables pues son superiores a 0.70; sin embargo, el modelo propuesto muestra mejores indicadores en todas las escalas, en comparación con los obtenidos utilizando el modelo original, cuyos indicadores son ligeramente superiores a los presentados en el estudio de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>). Esto no significa que un modelo sea mejor que otro, solo que ambos muestran una adecuada consistencia interna de sus respectivas escalas. Además, ambos análisis mantienen la dimensión de interacción educativa, así como los factores de estructura organizacional, interacción con el contexto exterior, la interacción entre pares y la interacción docente-estudiante, aunque no con los mismos ítems en todos los casos.</p>
         <p>En contraste, nuestro análisis elimina la dimensión de satisfacción propuesta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), cuyos ítems son absorbidos por la categoría de estructura organizacional, esto es, nuestro AFE basado en una rotación oblicua (más apropiada para trabajar datos de contextos sociales que las rotaciones ortogonales) no encuentra diferencia entre los ítems de los factores de satisfacción y estructura organizacional como muestran las cargas factoriales de la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabla 1</xref>.</p>
         <p>Adicionalmente, el factor de funcionalidad se reemplaza por un nuevo constructo denominado comunicación institucional que incorpora el ítem 5 del instrumento de clima educativo “los estudiantes sabemos con quién podemos comunicar nuestras inquietudes respecto al desempeño de los profesores”. El cambio se debe a que se considera que los ítems responden más a aspectos de comunicación entre el estudiantado y la universidad. De acuerdo con lo anterior, para efectos de este trabajo se entiende el factor comunicación institucional como la comunicación entre las diferentes instancias de la universidad con la comunidad estudiantil, en busca del bienestar del estudiante, así como la valoración de su opinión.</p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4">
               <label>Tabla 4</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Análisis de consistencia interna de los ítems correspondientes al AFE aplicado a la ECEAU a estudiantes matriculados en cursos de matemática Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II ciclo 2019. N =381</title>
               </caption>
               <table>
                  <colgroup>
                     <col span="5"/>
                     <col span="4"/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <tbody>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center" colspan="5">Modelo propuesto</td>
                        <td align="center" colspan="4">Modelo original</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">Constructo</td>
                        <td align="center">Número de ítems</td>
                        <td align="center">Omega</td>
                        <td align="center">Alfa</td>
                        <td align="center">Constructo</td>
                        <td align="center">Número de ítems</td>
                        <td align="center">Omega</td>
                        <td align="center">Alfa</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Comunicación docente</td>
                        <td align="center">10</td>
                        <td align="center">0.934</td>
                        <td align="center">0.918</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción maestro-alumno</td>
                        <td align="center">9</td>
                        <td align="center">0.928</td>
                        <td align="center">0.906</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Interacción entre pares</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="center">0.904</td>
                        <td align="center">0.866</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción entre pares</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="center">0.904</td>
                        <td align="center">0.866</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Mediación pedagógica</td>
                        <td align="center">7</td>
                        <td align="center">0.944</td>
                        <td align="center">0.876</td>
                        <td align="left">Metodología de enseñanza-aprendizaje</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="center">0.899</td>
                        <td align="center">0.865</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Estructura organizacional</td>
                        <td align="center">9</td>
                        <td align="center">0.887</td>
                        <td align="center">0.854</td>
                        <td align="left">Estructura organizacional</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="center">0.764</td>
                        <td align="center">0.713</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Comunicación institucional</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="center">0,848</td>
                        <td align="center">0,788</td>
                        <td align="left">Funcionalidad</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="center">0.792</td>
                        <td align="center">0.756</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Contexto exterior</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="center">0,836</td>
                        <td align="center">0,822</td>
                        <td align="left">Contexto exterior</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="center">0.836</td>
                        <td align="center">0.822</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">-</td>
                        <td align="center">-</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Evaluación</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="center">0.794</td>
                        <td align="center">0.785</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">-</td>
                        <td align="center">-</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="center">0.899</td>
                        <td align="center">0.858</td>
                     </tr>
                  </tbody>
               </table>
               <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN5">
                     <p>Nota: Fuente elaboración propia</p>
                  </fn>
               </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <p>Por otra parte, se reestructuran los factores de interacción maestro-alumno, prácticas de evaluación y metodologías de enseñanza y aprendizaje por los de comunicación docente- estudiante y mediación pedagógica. El AFE reorganiza los 17 ítems del planteamiento de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) en estos dos nuevos factores relacionados con la práctica educativa en el aula.</p>
         <p>De esta manera, la comunicación docente-estudiante, será comprendida como la comunicación que tiene el docente con sus estudiantes, ya sea de manera verbal o no verbal, de modo que se incluye el interés que muestra por lograr el bienestar y desarrollo del aprendizaje en sus estudiantes. Asimismo, la mediación pedagógica será entendida como las acciones del docente para promover y favorecer la formación de sus estudiantes en el área educativa correspondiente, según la opinión de su grupo estudiantil.</p>
         <p>La definición de los conceptos anteriores se realizó con base en la experiencia del equipo investigador, la observación de las cargas factoriales de los ítems de la escala, lo que resulta indispensable para comprender los factores resultantes del AFE y facilita que se generalice una conceptualización para los ítems que se adhirieron en grupos distintos a los que originalmente constituían la ECEAU. A modo de síntesis, la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabla 5</xref> presenta la comparación entre las dimensiones y factores de ambos modelos y, de esta manera, apreciar las similitudes y diferencias entre ambos.</p>
         <p>
            <table-wrap id="t5">
               <label>Tabla 5</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Comparación de los análisis factoriales de la propuesta original de Juárez para el ECEAU  y el aplicado a estudiantes matriculados en cursos de matemática Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II ciclo 2019. N =381</title>
               </caption>
               <table>
                  <colgroup>
                     <col span="4"/>
                     <col span="4"/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <tbody>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center" colspan="4">Propuesta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>)</td>
                        <td align="center" colspan="4">Propuesta de la investigación</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="center">Dimensión</td>
                        <td align="center">Factores e indicadores</td>
                        <td align="center">Cantidad de ítems</td>
                        <td align="center">Números de ítems</td>
                        <td align="center">Dimensión</td>
                        <td align="center">Factores</td>
                        <td align="center">Cantidad de ítems</td>
                        <td align="center">Números de ítems</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Institucional</td>
                        <td align="left">Estructura organizacional</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="left">1,2,3,4,5</td>
                        <td align="left">Institucional</td>
                        <td align="left">Estructura organizacional</td>
                        <td align="center">9</td>
                        <td align="left">1,2,3,4,37,38,39,40,41</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Funcionalidad</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="left">6,7,8,9,10</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Comunicación institucional</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="left">5,6,7,8,</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción</td>
                        <td align="left">Satisfacción</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="left">37,38,39,40,41</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="center"> </td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Interacciones educativas</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción con contexto exterior</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="left">34,35,36</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción educativa</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción con contexto exterior</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="left">34,35,36</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Interacciones de pares</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="left">28,29,30,31, 32,33</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción entre pares</td>
                        <td align="center">6</td>
                        <td align="left">28,29,30,31, 32,33</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left">Prácticas docentes</td>
                        <td align="left">Interacción Maestro-alumno</td>
                        <td align="center">9</td>
                        <td align="left">11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18, 19</td>
                        <td align="left">Práctica educativa</td>
                        <td align="left">Comunicación docente- estudiante</td>
                        <td align="center">10</td>
                        <td align="left">17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Prácticas de Evaluación</td>
                        <td align="center">3</td>
                        <td align="left">25,26,27</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Mediación pedagógica</td>
                        <td align="center">7</td>
                        <td align="left">11,12,13,14,15,16,27</td>
 
                     </tr>
                     <tr>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left">Metodología de Enseñanza-aprendizaje</td>
                        <td align="center">5</td>
                        <td align="left">20,21,22,23,24</td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="left"> </td>
                        <td align="center"> </td>
                        <td align="center"> </td>
                     </tr>
                  </tbody>
               </table>
               <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN6">
                     <p>Nota: Fuente elaboración propia.</p>
                  </fn>
               </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
         </p>
         <p>Finalmente, la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Gráfica 4</xref> resume nues tra propuesta en cuanto a las dimensiones y factores del constructo de clima educativo basado en el modelo SEM, propuesto a partir del AFE desarrollado en esta investigación, en contraposición a la propuesta de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), presentada en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Gráfica 1</xref>.</p>
         <p>y cuantitativos, explícitamente no se había representado un modelo teórico que recogiera los resultados de este proceso de elaboración de la escala. Es así como se representa el modelo teórico, basado en la investigación de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), cuya estructura factorial se valida mediante un modelo </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
         <title>Conclusiones</title>
         <bold> </bold>
         <p>El constructo del clima educativo es relevante para comprender las interacciones entre los diferentes actores en el proceso educativo. La ECEAU es un instrumento creado con el fin de medir y tener evidencia empírica acerca de este constructo en ambientes universitarios. Si bien es cierto la ECEAU se construyó mediante un riguroso proceso que involucró análisis cualitativos SEM, a partir de una muestra de estudiantes universitarios de la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, que matriculan cursos del área de matemática y cuyos indicadores de bondad de ajuste validan la estructura planteada para medir el clima escolar para este contexto universitario.</p>
         <p>
            <fig id="f4">
               <label>Gráfica 4</label>
               <caption>
                  <title>Análisis factorial exploratorio para la Propuesta de clasificación de dimensiones y factores derivada a partir del AFE con estudiantes matriculados en cursos de matemática, Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II ciclo 2019. N =381.</title>
               </caption>
               <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image004.jpg"/>
               <attrib>Fuente: Elaboración propia.</attrib>
            </fig>
         </p>
         <p>A pesar del valioso aporte que representa la ECEAU se quiso verificar si el aplicar la escala a un contexto de estudiantes cuyas carreras requieren cursos de matemática y usar un AFE, en lugar de un ACP con métodos y rotaciones recomendadas para constructos medidos a partir de variables categóricas, cambiaba en algo la estructura factorial de la escala.</p>
         <p>Efectivamente, al replicar el instrumento en este contexto educativo con las variantes antes mencionadas en cuanto al uso de la rotación oblicua y estimación de mínimos cuadrados no ponderados varió la estructura, por lo que se decidió proponer una estructura factorial alternativa justificada en un AFE, en lugar de un ACP, que mostró diferencias en la conformación de las dimensiones y factores generados, en comparación con la escala original.</p>
         <p>Esta discrepancia, posiblemente se deba a que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) realizó su planteamiento mediante un ACP basado en una matriz producto-momento de Pearson, con una rotación ortogonal VARIMAX en lugar de una AFE con rotación oblicua. Es importante mencionar que las recomendaciones actuales, a la hora de aplicar un AFE a constructos teóricos del campo social, como la psicología o la educación, desaconsejan la aplicación de la técnica en esta forma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Ferrando y Lorenzo-Seva, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ledesma et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>). Además, el contexto de aplicación referente a estudiantes que matricularon cursos del área de matemática también pudo haber afectado la estructura.</p>
         <p>Otras diferencias al comparar ambos técnicas de análisis es que para la aplicación del AFE en este estudio se consideraron los siguientes aspectos: primero, los ítems del ECEAU están planteados en una escala ordinal, por lo que las recomendaciones actuales sugieren utilizar la matriz de correlaciones policórica, pues la matriz producto-momento se usa cuando los ítems tienen una escala numérica o bien su escala ordinal tiene cinco o más opciones, pero los reactivos de la ECEAU solo tienen cuatro opciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
         <p>Segundo, al estar los factores subyacentes al instrumento teóricamente correlacionados, una rotación ortogonal que supone no correlación, como la VARIMAX, no es apropiada y, por ende, se prefieren rotaciones oblicuas como PROMAX u OBLIMIN (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ledesma et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Pere-Joan &amp; Anguiano-Carrasco, 2010</xref>).</p>
         <p>En tercer lugar, actualmente existen métodos de estimación de factores más eficientes que el ACP, que depende mucho de la calidad de las estimaciones iniciales de las comunalidades, como el MinRes, que es equivalente al método de mínimos cuadrados no ponderados el cual es uno de los más recomendados cuando se trabaja con variables categóricas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
         <p>Cuarto, el AFE realizado en esta investigación para determinar el número de factores a considerar toma en cuenta tanto criterios objetivos como el MAP o el análisis paralelo, como la fundamentación teórica y la capacidad de interpretar los resultados. Por último, los resultados de este estudio muestran la importancia de tomar en cuenta las recomendaciones actuales para ejecutar un AFE y cómo podrían variar las interpretaciones sobre la naturaleza de un constructo, como lo es el clima educativo, al considerar diferentes criterios para la elección del método de estimación, el tipo de matriz de correlación y la rotación del modelo.</p>
         <p>A pesar de estas diferencias al realizar los modelos SEM, tanto para la estructura original como para la propuesta en esta investigación, los estadísticos de bondad de ajuste fueron prácticamente los mismos, evidenciando la validez estructural de ambos modelos. Sin embargo, la reestructuración sugerida en el modelo propuesto arrojó mejores indicadores de confiabilidad que los del modelo original y presenta una estructura alternativa para los ítems de la ECEAU.</p>
         <p>Se espera que futuras investigaciones puedan replicar uno o ambos modelos y confirmar o rechazar las estructuras aquí propuestas o bien plantear las suyas propias, esto ayudaría a verificar ambos planteamientos teóricos y, de esta manera, recolectar evidencia empírica a favor de una u otra propuesta. Otras investigaciones, podrían enfocarse en áreas de conocimiento específicos propias de las dinámicas de las instituciones de educación superior como lo son las ciencias básicas, las ciencias sociales o las artes y contrastar los resultados con las propuestas aquí planteadas. No obstante, los datos muestran que ambos planteamientos son dignos de mérito, sin que esto signifique que ninguna propuesta sea mejor o peor que su contraparte, pero se requiere más estudios con la ECEAU en otros contextos universitarios que avalen o refuten los resultados aquí obtenidos.</p>
         <p>Finalmente, también se insta a las personas interesadas a utilizar la ECEAU como instrumento de medida para clima educativo y de esta manera posibilitar la implementación de acciones tendientes a mejorar el clima de aula, pues esto repercutirá no solamente en el rendimiento académico sino en el componente afectivo tan importante en los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje.</p>
         <sec>
            <title>Financiamiento</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Conflicto de intereses</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Los autores declaran no tener conflicto de intereses.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Declaración de la contribución de los autores</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Todos los autores afirmamos que se leyó y aprobó la versión final de este artículo.</p>
            <p>El porcentaje total de contribución para la conceptualización, preparación y corrección de este artículo fue el siguiente: J.A.Z.A. 40 %, K.D.A. 20 %, D.Q.V. 20 % y M.P.A. 20 %.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Declaración de disponibilidad de los datos</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Los datos que apoyan los resultados de este estudio, incluido el instrumento y códigos computacionales utilizados solo están disponibles para su consulta a través del enlace (https://github.com/andreyzamora/Clima-Educativo)</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
   </body>
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   <sub-article id="s1" article-type="translation" xml:lang="en">
      <front-stub>
         <article-categories>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
               <subject>Artículo</subject>
            </subj-group>
         </article-categories>
         <title-group/>
         <abstract>
            <title>Abstract</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <sec>
               <title>(Objective)</title>
               <p>The aim of this paper is to verify the factorial structure of the School Climate Scale in University Environments (ECEAU) through structural equation models (SEM).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Methodology)</title>
               <p> A non-experimental cross-sectional study was carried out with a random sample of 381 students of the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), to whom the ECEAU was applied. A SEM model was proposed to confirm the factor structure of the scale and an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to provide the basis for an alternative SEM model with a different structure. The reliability of scales was determined using McDonald’s omega, and the goodness of fit indexes used for the SEM models were the RMSEA, the CFI, the TLI and the GFI. The analysis was carried out using R software.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Results) </title>
               <p>The reliability of the scales in both models was adequate (w&gt;0.70), although the metrics in the proposed model produced better results. The AFE suggested a different structure for the ECEAU, keeping some dimensions of the original structure and modifying and eliminating others. The goodness of fit indexes in both models were almost identical, with RMSEA=0.02, CFI=0.99, TLI=0.99 and GFI=0.98, which provides supporting evidence for the factorial structures proposed.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>(Conclusions)</title>
               <p> The original structure of the ECEAU was confirmed, while the differences in the results of the estimation and rotation methods generated another equally valid factorial structure for measuring the school climate construct in this university, and could be applied to other similar contexts.</p>
            </sec>
         </abstract>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
            <title>Keywords:</title>
            <kwd>Factor analysis</kwd>
            <kwd>school climate</kwd>
            <kwd>reliability</kwd>
            <kwd>higher education</kwd>
            <kwd>mathematics</kwd>
            <kwd>validity</kwd>
         </kwd-group>
      </front-stub>
      <body>
         <sec>
            <title>Analysis of the School Climate Scale in University Environments (ECEAU)</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <abstract>
               <title>Abstract</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <sec>
                  <title>(Objective)</title>
                  <p>The aim of this paper is to verify the factorial structure of the School Climate Scale in University Environments (ECEAU) through structural equation models (SEM).</p>
               </sec>
               <sec>
                  <title>(Methodology)</title>
                  <p> A non-experimental cross-sectional study was carried out with a random sample of 381 students of the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), to whom the ECEAU was applied. A SEM model was proposed to confirm the factor structure of the scale and an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to provide the basis for an alternative SEM model with a different structure. The reliability of scales was determined using McDonald’s omega, and the goodness of fit indexes used for the SEM models were the RMSEA, the CFI, the TLI and the GFI. The analysis was carried out using R software.</p>
               </sec>
               <sec>
                  <title>(Results) </title>
                  <p>The reliability of the scales in both models was adequate (w&gt;0.70), although the metrics in the proposed model produced better results. The AFE suggested a different structure for the ECEAU, keeping some dimensions of the original structure and modifying and eliminating others. The goodness of fit indexes in both models were almost identical, with RMSEA=0.02, CFI=0.99, TLI=0.99 and GFI=0.98, which provides supporting evidence for the factorial structures proposed.</p>
               </sec>
               <sec>
                  <title>(Conclusions)</title>
                  <p> The original structure of the ECEAU was confirmed, while the differences in the results of the estimation and rotation methods generated another equally valid factorial structure for measuring the school climate construct in this university, and could be applied to other similar contexts.</p>
               </sec>
            </abstract>
            <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
               <title>Keywords:</title>
               <kwd>Factor analysis</kwd>
               <kwd>school climate</kwd>
               <kwd>reliability</kwd>
               <kwd>higher education</kwd>
               <kwd>mathematics</kwd>
               <kwd>validity</kwd>
            </kwd-group>
         </sec>
         <sec sec-type="intro">
            <title>Introduction</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>Classroom climate, also known as the school or educational climate, has an influence on the teaching and learning process through different components, including the infrastructure of the classroom and institution, the teachers’ role, the methodologies and evaluations that are implemented, and student-student and student-teacher interactions. These variables are measured and analyzed based on students’ perceptions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ríos et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Walankar et al., 2019</xref>). In addition, students’ perceptions of school climate have been positively associated with both academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barksdale, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba, 2015</xref>; National School Climate <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Council, 2007</xref>), and processes related to institutional retention and permanence. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Buckman, et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Lee and Burkam, 2003</xref>).</p>
            <p>Therefore, the benefits derived from having a positive school climate and its effect on student academic performance make it possible to reduce gaps in educational achievement caused by economic and social factors, while if the school climate is unfavorable, it may disproportionately affect the most vulnerable populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Berkowitz, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">O’Malley, et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
            <p>Factors that affect academic performance are also related to affective and emotional aspects; promoting a positive school climate thus requires educational interventions or policies to create better learning environments (National School Climate <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Council, 2007</xref>). Research areas based on the behaviors and attitudes of the actors are therefore proposed to assist in understanding these environments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Djigic and Stojiljkovic, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kohl, et al., 2013</xref>).</p>
            <p>In the case of teaching and learning processes, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Pereira (2010</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kohl et al. (2013</xref>) point out that teachers’ personality characteristics, the different methods they use to deliver their classes, the type of interaction that exists between students, and the structural conditions of an institution are factors that have a direct influence on the school climate in classrooms. However, school climate is a multidimensional concept, and does not have a single definition, which make its measurement difficult (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Shukla et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Wang and Degol, 2016</xref>).</p>
            <p>Furthermore, only a few instruments have been created to measure school climates in university environments, including the School Climate Scale in University Environments (ECEUA) created by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), which includes a series of factors associated with the construct, determined through a mixed study based on expert judgment and a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with VARIMAX orthogonal rotation. However, the dimensions derived from this type of analysis are usually correlated and, from a statistical point of view, are focused on determining factors rather than reducing dimensionality.</p>
            <p>The objective of this study is, therefore, to verify the factor structure of the ECEUA, firstly through an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a more appropriate oblique rotation for correlated factors and a more robust estimation method than the one originally used in the creation of the ECEUA, since the original author of the instrument used a principal component analysis (PCA) instead of EFA, to be able to assess if there are changes in its structure. To do so, it is proposed to analyze it together with the original structure using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to obtain empirical evidence for the validity of the scale for measuring the educational climate construct.</p>
            <sec>
               <title>Measurement of school climate</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>The concept of classroom climate has been of great interest in the area of education; however, there are relatively few instruments designed for measuring this construct, and it has also been studied using interviews, focus groups, observations and classroom reports (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Lenz et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
               <p>Among the scales that have been used for measuring school climate, particularly at the primary and secondary educational levels, is the Delaware School Climate Survey-Student (DSCS-S) scale, which measures perceptions of relationships among members of the educational community, for example: teacher-student relationships, teacher-tutor relationships, student-student relationships, school safety, equity and clarity of the rules, and behavioral expectations. This scale has several versions, depending on whether the target population is teachers, parents or students (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bear et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
               <p>Another instrument used in educational settings is the Inventory of School Climate-Stundt (ISC-S), which was designed to assess dimensions of the school environment which are consistently related to students’ adjustment to institutions, such as support behavior, consistency and clarity of rules and expectations, student engagement and achievement orientation, peer-to-peer interaction, disciplinary strictness, student input in decision-making, educational innovation, relevance, support for cultural pluralism, and safety concerns (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Brand et al., 2003</xref>). Similarly, the School Climate Measure (SCM), based on a robust psychometric analysis, uses eight dimensions for studying school climate, similar to those of ISC-S, namely: (1) positive student-teacher relationships, (2 ) school connection, (3) academic support, (4) order and discipline, (5) physical environment, (6) social environment, (7) perception of exclusion/privileges and (8) academic satisfaction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Zullig et al., 2010</xref>).</p>
               <p>Other scales have been created for other specific contexts, such as the Japan School Climate Inventory (JaSC), which is oriented towards the Japanese educational context, and was created based on the structures of instruments applied in the western world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al. al., 2020</xref>). In the Spanish-speaking world, one of the scales developed to measure the construct is the School Social Climate Scale (ECLIS), a Chilean instrument that evaluates the school climate through five subscales: (1) “My Teachers,” (2 ) “My classmates,” (3) “Places,” (perception of infrastructure), (4) “My school” (global evaluation of the institution), and (5) “Bullying” (harassment) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aron et al., 2012</xref>).</p>
               <p>As mentioned previously, instruments to be used in higher education are scarce, since most studies have focused on the primary and secondary levels (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Buckman et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al., 2020</xref>) or on specific academic programs, many of them in the area of health sciences (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Al-Natour, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kaur et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Krupat et al., 2017</xref>). One of the few instruments in Spanish aimed at a general university population is the ECEUA, created by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), which has a theoretical basis for its construction and was validated in a group of 693 university students of the Universidad Tecnológica de León, located in the city of León Guanajuato, México. The ECEUA has been used in research that considers educational climate as a construct that can help explain student academic performance at the university level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">García et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Loza et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
               <p>
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Garcia et al. (2022</xref>) recently created a school climate scale for higher education environments which was applied to 329 Mexican students, from first enrollment to the licentiate level of public and private universities, which uses other scales as a base, including <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), called the school climate scale for university students (ECE-U). The ECE-U is made up of six subscales: (1) Teacher support, (2) University belonging, (3) Relationship with peers, (4) Aggressiveness in the school, (5) University regulations, and (6) Institutional resources. In general terms, the instruments used for measuring the school climate consider social, individual, academic and interaction aspects to establish their dimensions.</p>
               <p>Therefore, to create an instrument that makes it possible to measure school climate in a university, and based on the similarities of the Mexican and Costa Rican university systems, it was decided to use the ECEUA in a population of students who had enrolled in mathematics courses at the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), where academic performance has historically been low and whose dropout rate is high. Only about 50% of the students entering the UNA each year meet graduation requirements, resulting in decreases in graduation efficiency in higher education and in the number of professionals that the university provides for the labor market <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">(Rodríguez and Zamora, 2021</xref>).</p>
               <p>The application of the ECEUA to the university context is intended to verify the factorial structure of the scale through its implementation in a similar context, focused in this case on students who receive mathematics courses, to assess its possible application in other university environments, and thereby contribute to improving the quality of the teaching and learning process.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Theoretical framework</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>This section is divided into two sections. The first consists of a brief review of the conceptualization of school climate and its importance in the field of academics. The second explains the formulation of the ECEAU, the process of its construction, and its factorial structure.</p>
            <sec>
               <title>School climate as a theoretical construct</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>This work is based on the concept of school climate of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al. (2020</xref>), who view it as a multidimensional construct which describes the quality and characteristics of an educational institution. It is also an experience shared by the different persons who are part of an institution, which can affect their thoughts, feelings and behavior. Given its multifactorial nature, the concept of school climate has multiple definitions. In this paper the definition proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) is the one used: “School climate is the set of structural, functional and interactional characteristics that frame the development of the usual activities of members of the institution, reflected in the perception of satisfaction that it generates for them.” (p. 65).</p>
               <p>In this regard, the school climate is considered as an aspect framed within the prevailing culture in educational institutions, which can be observed through the interactions, results and behaviors that occur every day within an educational center; that is, the culture of the institution creates the school climate, which is perceived by a group and which is directly related to the way people feel about their experiences in that institution (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cohen et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Roby, 2011</xref>).</p>
               <p>Furthermore, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Smith et al. (2014</xref>) school climate is determined by the perceived beliefs that the persons involved have regarding their educational center, influenced by the norms, goals, values, interactions with the members of the educational community, teaching methodologies and organizational structures of the institution. A positive school environment can help improve the quality of education, and its measurement allows the detection of problems of coexistence that can be affected by institutional actions to improve them, thus contributing to a pleasant and beneficial coexistence for all its members (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Sudla et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
               <p>On the other hand, as mentioned previously, there is a lack of consensus regarding the definition of the concept of school environment and parameters for its measurement, which has led to the use of the concept to refer to varying aspects associated with school environments, emphasizing its multidimensional nature, while different authors emphasize different aspects of the construct, depending on their research interests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Kaur et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Nishimura et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Shukla et al., 2019</xref>). For example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Wang and Degol (2016</xref>), based on a theoretical review of 327 documents, suggest that the school climate encompasses four main dimensions: (1) safety: subcategorized into emotional/ social, physical, discipline and order; (2) community: subdivided into camaraderie, quality of relationships, connectivity, and respect for diversity; (3) academic: whose sub-dimensions are leadership, professional development, teaching and learning, and (4) institutional environment, which includes environment, organizational structure and availability of resources; thus verifying the multidimensionality of the construct.</p>
               <p>
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba, Klinger, and Hussain (2015</xref>) also analyzed the multidimensionality of the school climate and proposed three major areas: (1) social, (2) academic, and (3) physical. As can be seen, the concept of school climate is often adapted to the context and needs of the research team, showing that the phrase has no single meaning. But there does seem to be agreement regarding its effect on the teaching and learning process, on students’ development, and on the perception or positive opinion that those involved have about the subject. All these indicators can provide an approximation to the classroom climate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez, 2014</xref>).</p>
               <p>Another way to categorize the classroom climate is by identifying it as positive or negative for students. According to this approach, a positive classroom climate generates an environment in which students feel safe, accompanied, and appreciated, and the teacher has the initiative to maintain assertive communication with the students to promote their positive personal development; on the other hand, certain characteristics of the students, including stress, depression, and lack of interest, indicate a negative classroom climate, which may happen when there is poor teacher-student communication (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Aron and Milicic, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Kutsyuruba et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Loza et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
               <p>Similarly, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Ríos et al. (2010</xref>) state that perception of situations within the classroom is based on a positive or negative climate. In the first case, teacher-student communication is based on respect, while the teacher’s action encourages the participation of his or her students and pleasantly answers the questions that arise; to the contrary, a negative climate will cause the opposite effects.</p>
               <p>In a related article, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Galván (2015</xref>) points out that since the teacher-student relationship is more distant in tertiary education than it is in primary and secondary education, university students show a positive reaction when the teacher shows interest in having a close relationship, in which the teacher is willing to listen to them, and shows interest in the topics that are important to them. The same happens when the teacher provides students with study support materials, or clear explanations of instructions in examinations, which results in a positive teacher-student relationship.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>Theoretical support for use of the School Climate Scale in University Environments</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>For the construction of the ECEAU, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) carried out a mixed study. In its first stage, he listed 351 items that were reduced to 76 items by expert judgement, which were applied to a sample of 170 students in a pilot stage, in which a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed with VARIMAX rotation and maximum likelihood estimation, reducing the scale to 41 items. At a later stage, he applied this latest version to a final sample of 693 students for final validation, which resulted in the generation of three principal dimensions: institutional, educational interactions and satisfaction, which are defined as follows:</p>
               <p>Institutional dimension: Considers organizational and functional aspects of the school or educational institution, including the image of the institution, and regulatory frameworks.</p>
               <p>Educational interactions dimension: Refers to practices, procedures, relationships, attitudes and behaviors among the persons in the institution, and their relationship with the environment.</p>
               <p>Satisfaction dimension: Opinions and perceptions of the persons who pertain to the educational institution are evaluated according to the level of satisfaction of the classroom climate that they have experienced.</p>
               <p>Based on these dimensions, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) established a classification of factors and indicators intended to evaluate the classroom climate, which are:</p>
               <p>Factor 1: Organizational structure; this aspect frames what students perceive about the organizational signs and standards designed in the educational institution which are related to the classroom climate.</p>
               <p>Factor 2: Functionality; which reflects what students think about the communication channels that guide them in their training process.</p>
               <p>Factor 3: Teacher-student interaction; this refers to how the teacher and student relate to each other, based on aspects such as dialogue, the teacher’s demonstration of interest in the students in the learning process, conflict resolution, and how much congruence exists between what the teacher says and how he or she acts.</p>
               <p>Factor 4: Teaching practices; in which the teaching-learning methodology is associated with the students’ opinions about methodological practices implemented by the teacher to meet the academic objectives established for the learning process. Indicator 1 considers evaluation practices from the students’ perspective, analyzing the evaluation criteria of a certain subject, and whether or not the teacher provides feedback to support his or her teaching practices.</p>
               <p>Factor 5: Peer-to-peer interaction; this refers to the relationships between students in certain situations within work groups, for example, in conflict resolution, the moments where students can express ideas. Indicator 2 considers external interactions, evaluating the support that the University provides to students to locate themselves within the community and in the business sector.</p>
               <p>Factor 6: Satisfaction; this is a criterion to obtain information on students’ opinions about the satisfaction they feel with respect to their stay at the university.</p>
               <p>As can be seen, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) developed the dimensions, factors and indicators and, to better understand the theoretical proposal, the research team (for this investigation) synthesized the organization of the dimensions with respect to the factors and indicators of the ECEAU scale using a graphic representation in which the interrelationships of these concepts can be more clearly observed. The educational climate is considered as the main construct, the dimensions as second level constructs, and the factors and indicators as third and fourth level constructs, according to the theoretical analysis and construction procedure of the scale. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref> shows the arrangement of each factor or indicator according to the dimension in which it was classified, rep resenting the factorial structure to be confirmed by means of a SEM analysis.</p>
               <p>The scale created using these factors and indicators can be used to evaluate the university school climate, providing an approximation of the climate in which the learning process takes place, and how it serves as support for the teacher in planning and structuring his or her future actions to carry out the training of their students. Given that the ECEAU is one of the few instruments developed for measuring school climate in university contexts, and that its construction, initial application and validation processes were carried out in a context similar to that of the Universidad Nacional, it was decided to use this scale for analyzing classroom climate in Costa Rican higher education.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>Methodology</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>In this research the methodology is based on a cross-sectional correlational non-experimental quantitative design. The study population was the student body enrolled in the service courses delivered by the School of Mathematics of the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica during the II Cycle of 2019; courses were offered by the School of Mathematics for careers in the areas of engineering, social sciences and, in general, careers that require subjects such as Calculus, General Mathematics, Linear Algebra, Advanced Calculus, Probability and Statistics, among others. In total, 66 groups of these courses were available, with a total of 2,310 enrolled students.</p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f5">
                  <label>Figure 1</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Classification of the dimensions, factors and indicators used in the ECEAU.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image005.jpg"/>
                  <attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors.</attrib>
               </fig>
            </p>
            <p>The sample was selected using systematic random sampling from a list in which all service courses taught were included. The sample consisted of 20 groups, 14 of which belonged to the first levels of the careers, for a total effective sample of 381 surveyed students, 247 men and 134 women, with ages ranging from 17 to 49 years.</p>
            <p>The coordinator of the mathematics service courses, the teachers selected in the sample, and the students enrolled in the courses were consulted about the application of the instrument. An informed consent form was provided for those persons who agreed to collaborate in the investigation, which included provisions for safeguarding and maintaining anonymity of the information provided. For data collection, the scale developed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) was used, which consists of 41 questions with a scale of 1 to 4, where 1 indicates strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 agree, and 4 strongly agree.</p>
            <p>The instrument was adapted to be applied to the context of the UNA; these instruments, the code to replicate the results and the database can be found at the following link: https://github.com/andreyzamora/ Clima-Educativo.</p>
            <p>As a first step, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was applied to the ECEAU to verify if its results were in agreement with the factorial structure of the scale, given that a different estimation and rotation method was applied to the construction process of the ECEAU. Based on the results of this analysis, a proposal arose to modify the original structure of the scale. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to both the original structure and the new proposed structure to compare them, using the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and the goodness of fit index (GFI) as measures of goodness of fit.</p>
            <p>According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), the items of the ECEAU scale were selected through a rigorous process that involved expert judgement, and its final structure was a combination of this judgment and a principal component analysis (PCA) as a means to carry out the exploratory analysis, using VARIMAX rotation and the maximum likelihood estimation method. However, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura (2014</xref>) stated that it was not appropriate to use PCA for verifying the factorial structure of an instrument whose objective is to determine its factorial structure, and he did not recommend using orthogonal rotations, such as VARIMAX when working with constructs in the field of the social sciences, since they are usually correlated.</p>
            <p>To the contrary, it is recommended to use factor analysis and minimum residual (MinRes) or unweighted least squares estimation instead of a maximum likelihood estimation, since it tends to produce better results for this type of instrument. Therefore, the EFA method was used to analyze the ECEAU scale, but using oblique rotation because, based on the underlying theory, the dimensions of the educational climate construct are related to each other. In addition, the MinRes method was used to determine how much the originally proposed factorial structure varied. This is a highly recommended approach which has been shown to be effective in minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between the observed and the reproduced correlation matrices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
            <p>Given that the objective of this study is to identify the number and composition of the common factors associated with a latent trait and thus explain the common variance based on the items that make up the ECEAU, it is appropriate to use EFA rather than a principal component analysis (PCA), since the latter is used for identifying the number and composition of the components necessary to summarize observed scores in a large set of observed variables; that is, it is a dimensionality reduction technique. The objective of using EFA is to evaluate the factorial structure of the instrument, and contrast this structure with the ECEAU by means of SEM analyses (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figures 1</xref> and 2). The lavaan and psych libraries of the statistical software R version 4.0.2 were used in the analysis of results.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec sec-type="results">
            <title>Analysis and results</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>One of the measures of adequacy of a sample for a factorial analysis is the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistic, together with the Barttlet sphericity test, which yielded values of 0.93 (p &lt; 0.001) and chi-square of 1950.02, df= 820 (p&lt; 0.001). It was therefore concluded that it was appropriate to carry out an EFA with these data.</p>
            <p>The polychoric correlation matrix was used because the items were ordinal in nature, which according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al. (2014</xref>) generally requires a larger sample size than when the Pearson’s product-moment matrix is used, and high values of item commonalities; however, there was a sufficient sample size of 381 cases and the value of the commonalities was moderately high with most of the scores being between 0.33 and 0.70. The estimation method used was the minimum residuals (MinRes) equivalent to unweighted least squares which, unlike those based on maximum likelihood, are more computationally efficient and more appropriate when working with polychoric correlation matrices <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">(Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Pere-Joan and Anguiano-Carrasco, 2010</xref>).</p>
            <p>When determining the number of factors, several criteria were considered, among them parallel analysis obtained through the fa.parallel function of the R psych package, which suggested six factors, calculation of the Minimum Average Partial Test (MAP), which suggested seven factors for minimizing the correlation between the residuals, and the theory underlying the instrument given by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), which indicated six factors. Because of the interpretability and consistency of the previous indicators, it was decided to work with six factors.</p>
            <p>
               <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 1</xref> shows the results of the EFA for the ECEAU. The names of the items reflect the classification of dimensions made by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>. The EFA suggested the presence of six factors, but there was no perfect coincidence with those factors proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>). This is explained by the fact that a different method of rotation and estimation of factors was used.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t6">
                  <label>Table 1</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Results of the EFA for the ECEAU applied to students enrolled in Mathematics courses, Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II cycle 2019. N =381</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Item</td>
                           <td align="center">Teacher-student communication</td>
                           <td align="center">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">Pedagogic mediation</td>
                           <td align="center">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="center">Institutional communication</td>
                           <td align="center">External context</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational 1</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.14</td>
                           <td align="center">0.63</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational 2</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.43</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational 3</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.19</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.30</td>
                           <td align="center">0.35</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational 4</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.18</td>
                           <td align="center">0.12</td>
                           <td align="center">0.24</td>
                           <td align="center">0.42</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.12</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational 5</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.31</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.50</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Functional 6</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.65</td>
                           <td align="center">0.11</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Functional 7</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.69</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Functional 8</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.14</td>
                           <td align="center">0.60</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Functional 9</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.49</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Functional 10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.12</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.62</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">1TSI 11</td>
                           <td align="center">0.13</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.33</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 12</td>
                           <td align="center">0.23</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.55</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 13</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.77</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 14</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.79</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 15</td>
                           <td align="center">0.14</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.68</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 16</td>
                           <td align="center">0.33</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.38</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 17</td>
                           <td align="center">0.74</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.13</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 18</td>
                           <td align="center">0.44</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.39</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">TSI 19</td>
                           <td align="center">0.62</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.12</td>
                           <td align="center">0.19</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Methodology 20</td>
                           <td align="center">0.67</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Methodology 21</td>
                           <td align="center">0.70</td>
                           <td align="center">0.15</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.12</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Methodology 22</td>
                           <td align="center">0.65</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Methodology 23</td>
                           <td align="center">0.69</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Methodology 24</td>
                           <td align="center">0.69</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Evaluation 25</td>
                           <td align="center">0.52</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.22</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Evaluation 26</td>
                           <td align="center">0.44</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.32</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Evaluation 27</td>
                           <td align="center">0.30</td>
                           <td align="center">0.15</td>
                           <td align="center">0.33</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.11</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">2PPI 28</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.1</td>
                           <td align="center">0.78</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PPI 29</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.78</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.07</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PPI 30</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.74</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PPI 31</td>
                           <td align="center">0.12</td>
                           <td align="center">0.52</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.20</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PPI 32</td>
                           <td align="center">0.1</td>
                           <td align="center">0.74</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">PPI 33</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.64</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.04</td>
                           <td align="center">0.11</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">3EC 34</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.17</td>
                           <td align="center">0.55</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">EC 35</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.72</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">EC 36</td>
                           <td align="center">0.00</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.02</td>
                           <td align="center">0.79</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction 370.06</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.63</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.25</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction 38</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.11</td>
                           <td align="center">0.59</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">0.18</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction 39</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.66</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center">0.21</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction 40</td>
                           <td align="center">0.01</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.48</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.02</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction 41</td>
                           <td align="center">0.11</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.03</td>
                           <td align="center">0.58</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                     <fn id="TFN7">
                        <p>
                           <sup>1 </sup>TSI: Teacher-student interaction. <sup>2</sup> PPI Peer-to-peer interaction. <sup>3</sup> EC External context</p>
                     </fn>
                     <fn id="TFN8">
                        <p>Note: Source prepared by the authors.</p>
                     </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>Regarding the criteria for assigning items to the factors, it was decided to maintain those whose saturations were greater than 0.30. In addition, goodness of fit indicators show a strong fit of the model to the data: the root mean square of the residuals RMSR = 0.03 is close to zero; the root mean square index of the approximation error RMSEA =0.025; and the Tucker-Lewis reliability index TLI = 0.993. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Table 2</xref> shows the proportion of variance explained for each of the six factors considered in the analysis, resulting in a similar contribution of each of them to the common variance.</p>
            <p>In addition, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref> shows the correlation of each of the six factors and the items that make up each factor; that is, it is the representation of the SEM model proposed based on the EFA. These correlations range between 0.46 and 0.94, which shows that the factors are associated as established by the underlying theory and that it is therefore appropriate to apply an oblique rotation. Likewise, the goodness of fit statistics for the proposed model, using a non-orthogonal rotation, through the MinRes estimation, were satisfactory (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Table 3</xref>).</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t7">
                  <label>Table 2</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Indicators related to the variance of the ECEAU factors</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Indicator</td>
                           <td align="center">Teacher-student communication</td>
                           <td align="center">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">Pedagogical mediation</td>
                           <td align="center">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="center">Institutional communication</td>
                           <td align="center">External context</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Self-values</td>
                           <td align="center">5.26</td>
                           <td align="center">3.53</td>
                           <td align="center">4.01</td>
                           <td align="center">3.31</td>
                           <td align="center">2.72</td>
                           <td align="center">2.13</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Proportion of variance 0.13</td>
                           <td align="center">0.09</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.08</td>
                           <td align="center">0.07</td>
                           <td align="center">0.05</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Proportion of accumulated variance 0.13</td>
                           <td align="center">0.21</td>
                           <td align="center">0.31</td>
                           <td align="center">0.39</td>
                           <td align="center">0.46</td>
                           <td align="center">0.51</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Proportion of variance explained for each factor</td>
                           <td align="center">0.25</td>
                           <td align="center">0.17</td>
                           <td align="center">0.19</td>
                           <td align="center">0.16</td>
                           <td align="center">0.13</td>
                           <td align="center">0.10</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Proportion of accumulated variance explained for each factor</td>
                           <td align="center">0.25</td>
                           <td align="center">0.42</td>
                           <td align="center">0.61</td>
                           <td align="center">0.77</td>
                           <td align="center">0.90</td>
                           <td align="center">1.00</td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                     <fn id="TFN9">
                        <p>Note: Source prepared by the authors.</p>
                     </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t8">
                  <label>Table 3</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Goodness of fit indicators for the proposed and original SEM models of the ECEAU</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                        <col/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Model</td>
                           <td align="center">RMSEA</td>
                           <td align="center">C</td>
                           <td align="center">FI</td>
                           <td align="center">TLI</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="center">GFI</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Original</td>
                           <td align="center">0.024</td>
                           <td align="center">0.</td>
                           <td align="center">994</td>
                           <td align="center">0.994</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="center">0.979</td>
                        </tr>
 
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Proposed</td>
                           <td align="center">0.025</td>
                           <td align="center">0.</td>
                           <td align="center">993</td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="center">0.993</td>
                           <td align="center">0.979</td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                     <fn id="TFN10">
                        <p>Note: Source prepared by the authors.</p>
                     </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f6">
                  <label>Figure 2</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Confirmatory factor analysis for the proposed constructs of the ECEAU.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image006.jpg"/>
                  <attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors</attrib>
               </fig>
            </p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f7">
                  <label>Figure 3</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Confirmatory factor analysis for the constructs originally proposed for the ECEAU</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image007.jpg"/>
                  <attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors</attrib>
               </fig>
            </p>
            <p>A SEM model was also applied in a similar fashion to the structure originally proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) for the ECEAU, with non-orthogonal rotation and the same estimation method used for the proposed model, which produced acceptable goodness of fit indicators of adjustment (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>), thus providing evidence for the initially established factorial structure.</p>
            <p>The goodness of fit statistics of both models are almost the same, although their factorial structure is slightly different, as shown in the items that make up the respective scales that operationalize the constructs. However, the factorial structure for the ECEAU of the proposed SEM model takes into account the theoretical basis with which the scale was built, but reassigns some items between the scales and maintains others.</p>
            <p>The McDonald’s Omega test was used as a reliability measure for the scales, as recommended for ordinal data used in the modeling of Cronbach structural equations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Green and Yang, 2009</xref>). Cronbach’s alpha measurement is also specified for comparative purposes, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Table 4</xref>.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t9">
                  <label>Table 4</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Internal consistency analysis of the items in the EFA applied to the ECEAU for students enrolled in mathematics courses at the Universidad Nacional,  Costa Rica II cycle 2019. N =381</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col span="5"/>
                        <col span="4"/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center" colspan="5">Proposed model </td>
                           <td align="center" colspan="4">Original model</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="center">Construct</td>
                           <td align="center">Number  of items</td>
                           <td align="center">Omega</td>
                           <td align="center">Alpha</td>
                           <td align="center">Construct</td>
                           <td align="center">Number of items</td>
                           <td align="center">Omega</td>
                           <td align="center">Alpha of items</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Teacher communication</td>
                           <td align="center">10</td>
                           <td align="center">0.934</td>
                           <td align="center">0.918</td>
                           <td align="left">Teacher-student interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">9</td>
                           <td align="center">0.928</td>
                           <td align="center">0.906</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="center">0.904</td>
                           <td align="center">0.866</td>
                           <td align="left">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="center">0.904</td>
                           <td align="center">0.866</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Pedagogical mediation</td>
                           <td align="center">7</td>
                           <td align="center">0.944</td>
                           <td align="center">0.876</td>
                           <td align="left">Teaching-learning methodology</td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="center">0.899</td>
                           <td align="center">0.865 </td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="center">9</td>
                           <td align="center">0.887</td>
                           <td align="center">0.854</td>
                           <td align="left">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="center">0.764</td>
                           <td align="center">0.713</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Institutional communication</td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="center">0,848</td>
                           <td align="center">0,788</td>
                           <td align="left">Functionality</td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="center">0.792</td>
                           <td align="center">0.756</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">External context</td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="center">0,836</td>
                           <td align="center">0,822</td>
                           <td align="left">External context</td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="center">0.836</td>
                           <td align="center">0.822</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Evaluation</td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="center">0.794</td>
                           <td align="center">0.785</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction</td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="center">0.899</td>
                           <td align="center">0.858</td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                     <fn id="TFN11">
                        <p>Note: Source prepared by the authors.</p>
                     </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>As can be seen in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Table 4</xref>, the reliability of the scales of both models is acceptable (greater than 0.70); however, the proposed model shows better indicators in all scales, compared to those obtained using the original model, whose indicators are slightly higher than those presented in the study by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>). This does not imply that one model is better than the other, only that both show an adequate internal consistency of their respective scales. In addition, both analyses maintain the dimension of educational interaction, as well as the factors of organizational structure, interaction with the external context, peer-to-peer interaction, and teacher-student interaction, although not with the same items in all cases.</p>
            <p>In contrast, the present analysis eliminates the dimension of satisfaction proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), whose items are absorbed by the category of organizational structure. This is due to the fact that the EFA used in this study, based on an oblique rotation (which is more appropriate for working with data from social contexts than orthogonal rotations) did not encounter a difference between the items of the satisfaction factors and organizational structure, as shown by the factor loadings in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 1</xref>.</p>
            <p>Furthermore, the functionality factor is replaced by a new construct called institutional communication that incorporates Item 5 of the educational climate instrument “we (the students) know to whom we can communicate our concerns regarding teachers’ performance.” This change is explained by the fact that the items correspond more closely to aspects of communication between the student body and the university. Accordingly, for the purposes of this investigation, the institutional communication factor is understood as communication between the different levels of the university with the student community in pursuit of the students’ well-being, and to evaluate their opinions.</p>
            <p>On the other hand, the factors of teacher-student interaction, evaluation practices and teaching and learning methodologies are replaced by those of teacher-student communication and pedagogical mediation. The EFA reorganizes the 17 items of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez’s approach (2014</xref>) into these two new factors related to educational practice in the classroom.</p>
            <p>Teacher-student communication will be understood as the communication (either verbal or non-verbal) that the teacher has with his or her students, considering the interest shown by the teacher in achieving the students’ well-being and learning development. Likewise, pedagogical mediation will be understood as the actions of a teacher to promote and favor education of his or her students in a particular educational area, based on the students’ opinions.</p>
            <p>These concepts were defined based on the experience of the research team and the consideration of the factor loadings of the scale items, which is essential 	for understanding the factors resulting from the EFA, and contributes to conceptualizing the results of items being incorporated into groups other than those of the ECEAU. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Table 5</xref> presents a comparison between the dimensions and factors of both models, facilitating consideration of the similarities and differences between them.</p>
            <p>Finally, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref> summarizes the proposal of this investigation for the dimensions and factors of the educational climate construct based on the SEM model based on the EFA developed in this research, as opposed to the model originally proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
            <p>
               <table-wrap id="t10">
                  <label>Table 5</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Comparison of factor analyses of the original <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) proposal for the ECEAU and that applied to students enrolled in mathematics courses at the Universidad Nacional,  Costa Rica II cycle 2019. N =381</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table>
                     <colgroup>
                        <col span="4"/>
                        <col span="3"/>
                     </colgroup>
                     <thead>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="center" colspan="4">Juárez proposal (2014) </th>
                           <th align="center" colspan="3">Proposal developed in this investigation</th>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <th align="left">Dimension</th>
                           <th align="center">Factors and indicators</th>
                           <th align="center"> </th>
                           <th align="center">Amount of items</th>
                           <th align="center">Num of items</th>
                           <th align="center">Dimension</th>
                           <th align="center">Factors</th>
                           <th align="center">Amount of items</th>
                           <th align="center">Numbers of items</th>
 
                        </tr>
                     </thead>
                     <tbody>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Institutional</td>
                           <td align="left">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="left">1, 2, ,4,5</td>
                           <td align="left">Institucional</td>
                           <td align="left">Organizational structure</td>
                           <td align="center">9</td>
                           <td align="left">1,2,3,4,37,38,39,40,41 </td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Functionality</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="left">6,7,8,9, 10</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Institutional communication</td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="left">5,6,7,8,9,10</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction</td>
                           <td align="left">Satisfaction</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="left">37,38, 39,40, 41</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left">Educational interactions</td>
                           <td align="left">Interaction with external context</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="left">34,35,36</td>
                           <td align="left">Educational Interaction</td>
                           <td align="left">Interaction with external context</td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="left">34,35,36</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="left">28,29,30,31 ,32 33 </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Peer-to-peer interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">6</td>
                           <td align="left">28,29,30,31, 32,33</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Teaching practices</td>
                           <td align="left">Teacher-student interaction</td>
                           <td align="center">9</td>
                           <td align="left">11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19 </td>
                           <td align="left">Teaching practices</td>
                           <td align="left">Teacher-student communication</td>
                           <td align="center">10</td>
                           <td align="left">17, 18, 19, 20, 21,  22, 23, 24, 25, 26</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Evaluation practices</td>
                           <td align="center">3</td>
                           <td align="left">25, 26, 27</td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Pedagogical mediation</td>
                           <td align="center">7</td>
                           <td align="left">11,12,13,14, 15,16,27</td>
 
                        </tr>
                        <tr>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="left">Teaching-learning methodology</td>
                           <td align="center">5</td>
                           <td align="left">20,21, 22,23, 24 </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="center"> </td>
                           <td align="left"> </td>
                        </tr>
                     </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                     <fn id="TFN12">
                        <p>Note: Source prepared by the authors.</p>
                     </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
               </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>
               <fig id="f8">
                  <label>Figure 4</label>
                  <caption>
                     <title>Exploratory factor analysis of the Proposal for classification of dimensions and factors derived from the EFA with students enrolled in mathematics courses, Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica II cycle 2019. N =381.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="a04v38n1image008.jpg"/>
                  <attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors</attrib>
               </fig>
            </p>
         </sec>
         <sec sec-type="conclusions">
            <title>Conclusions</title>
            <bold> </bold>
            <p>The construct of educational climate is relevant for understanding the interactions between different actors in the educational process. The ECEAU is an instrument created for measuring and obtaining empirical evidence about this construct in university environments. Although the ECEAU was created through a rigorous process involving qualitative and quantitative analyses, an explicitly theoretical model bringing together the results of the process of constructing the scale has not been developed. Such a theoretical model is presented here, based on research by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>), whose factorial structure is validated using a SEM model, based on the analysis of a sample of university students of the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica who have enrolled in courses in the area of mathematics, and whose goodness of fit indicators validate the structure proposed for measuring school climate in a university context.</p>
            <p>Notwithstanding the valuable contributions of the ECEAU, it was also interesting to verify if applying the scale in the context of students whose careers require mathematics courses, using an EFA approach instead of PCA, with recommended methods and rotations for constructs measured based on categorical variables, would change the factorial structure of the scale.</p>
            <p>n fact, when the instrument was replicated in this educational context using oblique rotation and estimation of unweighted least squares, the structure changed. It was therefore decided to propose an alternative factorial structure using EFA instead of PCA, which produced results for the composition of the dimensions and factors which were different from those of the original scale.</p>
            <p>This discrepancy is possibly due to the fact that <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Juárez (2014</xref>) based his approach on the use of a PCA based on a Pearson product-momentum matrix, with a VARIMAX orthogonal rotation instead of an EFA with oblique rotation. It is important to mention that current recommendations, when applying an EFA to theoretical constructs in the social field, such as psychology or education, discourage the application of the technique used by Juárez (2014) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Ferrando and Lorenzo-Seva, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ledesma et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>). In addition, the application to students who enrolled in courses in the area of mathematics may also have affected the structure.</p>
            <p>When considering the differences found when comparing analytical techniques, the following aspects were considered: first, the ECEAU items are expressed on an ordinal scale, in which case current recommendations suggest using a polychoric correlation matrix, because the product-moment matrix is used when the items have a numerical scale or their ordinal scale has five or more options, but the ECEAU items only have four options (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
            <p>Second, given that the factors underlying the instrument are theoretically correlated, an orthogonal rotation that assumes no correlation, such as VARIMAX, is not appropriate and, therefore, oblique rotations such as PROMAX or OBLIMIN are preferred (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Ledesma et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Pere-Joan and Anguiano-Carrasco, 2010</xref>).</p>
            <p>Third, there are currently more efficient factor estimation methods than PCA, which strongly depends on the quality of initial estimations of commonalities, such as the MinRes method, which is equivalent to the unweighted least squares method, one of the most recommended methods when working with categorical variables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Izquierdo et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lloret-Segura et al., 2014</xref>).</p>
            <p>Fourth, the EFA used in this investigation to determine the number of factors to consider takes into account both objective criteria such as the minimum average partial (MAP) test or parallel analysis, as well as the theoretical foundation and the ability to interpret results. Finally, the results of this study show the importance of taking into account current recommendations for applying EFA and how interpretations of the nature of a construct, such as educational climate, may vary when considering different criteria for choosing the estimation method, the type of correlation matrix and the model’s rotation.</p>
            <p>Despite these differences when applying SEM models, both on the original structure and the structure proposed in this research, goodness of fit statistics were practically the same, demonstrating the structural validity of both models. However, the restructuring suggested in the proposed model yielded better reliability indicators than those of the original model, and offers an alternative structure for the ECEAU items.</p>
            <p>It is expected that future research can replicate one or both of these models and confirm or reject the structures proposed in this study, or propose others. This would help to evaluate both theoretical approaches, and collect empirical evidence in favor of one or the other proposal. Other investigations may focus on specific areas of knowledge typical of the dynamics of higher education institutions such as basic sciences, social sciences or the arts, and contrast the results with the proposals presented here. However, the data indicate that both approaches are worthy of merit, without suggesting that either proposal is better or worse than its counterpart, but more studies using the ECEAU in other university contexts are required to support or refute the results obtained here.</p>
            <p>Finally, interested persons are also urged to use the ECEAU as a measurement instrument for educational climate, thus enabling the implementation of actions aimed at improving classroom climate, which will have impacts not only on academic performance, but also on the affective component, which is so important in the teaching and learning processes.</p>
            <sec>
               <title>Funding</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>National University, Costa Rica.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>Conflict of interest</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>Authors’ contribution statement</title>
               <bold> </bold>
               <p>All the authors declare that the final version of this article was read and approved.</p>
               <p>The total percentage of contribution for the conceptualization, preparation and correction of this article was the following: J.A.Z.A. 40%, K.D.A. 20%, D.Q.V. 20% and M.P.A. 20 %.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>Data availability statement</title>
               <p>The data that support the results of this study, including the instrument and computer codes used, are only available for consultation through the link (https://github.com/andreyzamora/Clima-Educativo)</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </body>
   </sub-article>
</article>